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N UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS 
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: PSYCHOLOGY | 
i Livol. 3, No. Be pp. 61-72, plates [-3 January 30, 1919 


ANALYSIS OF PACKAGE LABELS 


BY 
WALTER S. HELLER 


INTRODUCTION 


The object of this investigation was to ascertain what influence 
the label on a package has on a purchaser, and if possible to 
determine whether there is any logical relation between the 
quality of the contents and the wrapper. In an earlier experi- 
ment conducted by the writer, a group of subjects arranged 
according to choice twelve packages of brown laundry soap. 
They were permitted to use any basis of judgment they pleased, 
simply being informed that the price per cake was uniform. This 
arrangement was later compared with arrangements of the same 
soap in blank wrappers and later without any wrappers at all. 
The results showed that there is rather a high correlation between 
the various arrangements, and on analysis it was found that 
the two most important factors were: (1) familiarity, and (2) 
size and shape. The first of these was important in the case of 
three or four of the twelve brands, while the second determined 
the choice in all the other nine and to some extent with the three 
familiar brands. It was finally decided that if size and shape 
could be controlled and familiarity minimized, the results would 
show what influence was exerted by the labels. The endeavor to 
eliminate these factors led to the investigations herein reported. 


The material consisted of twelve brands of canned ‘‘yellow 
cling’’ peaches put up in two and one-half pound tins (pls. 1-3). 


62 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou 3 


They were all the same size, all bore the name of the California 
Fruit Canners Association, and different only in brand and 
make-up of label. Peach labels were selected on account of the 
great variety obtainable. The twelve selected brands were dis- 
tributed among five qualities as follows: 


Quality 1 Special Extra 1 brand 


Quality 2 Extra 3 brands 
Quality 3 Extra Standard 3 brands 
Quality 4 Standard 3 brands 
Quality 5 Seconds 2 brands 

Total 12 brands 


As there was only one brand obtainable of the first quality, 
there was no choice. In the case of qualities 2, 3, and 4 from 
which there was considerable selection, the choice was made by 
taking what appeared to be the best one, a medium one, and a 
poor one. From quality 5, one was chosen which seemed to be 
the best, and one other which seemed to be the worst. 

The subjects for the experiment were shown the twelve cans, 
bearing their labels, and asked to make an arrangement accord- 
ing to preference. The cans were placed on a shelf a little above 
the level of the eye, in the endeavor to maintain store conditions. 
The same subjects were also to arrange the contents of the cans. 
For this purpose the peaches and juice were placed in saucers. 
There were twelve saucers, one for each brand. The subjects 
were to arrange these merely by appearance; they were not per- — 
mitted to taste the contents. 


PART. I 


The persons selected for observers in this experiment were 
fifty men and fifty women, most of them untrained subjects, 
having no knowledge of the experiments other than what was 
conveyed in the written directions. | 

Sheets containing the following questions were handed to them 
for preliminary information: ; 


1919 | Heller: Analysis of Package Labels — 63 


1. What experience, if any, have you had in purchasing canned peaches? 
2. Make a list below, of as many brands of canned peaches as possible. 


The results showed that 34 per cent of the men and 28 per 
eent of the women had previous experience in purchasing canned 
peaches. Ninety per cent of the subjects mentioned one of our 
brands, Del Monte. Practically none mentioned any of the others. 

On completion of the preliminary test, the subject was given 
the following set of directions: | 

The experiment in which you have been called to take part is on the 
psychology of the package, wrapper and container. 

You will be shown twelve (12) brands of ‘‘Yellow Cling Peaches’’ 
under two conditions. In one condition the fruit in cans will be shown 


and in the other the fruit open. In both cases you are to arrange them 
from left to right, beginning with the first choice. 


A memory test was made as soon as the arrangements were 
completed, the directions for which were as follows: 


1. Write down the names of all the peaches you can remember of the 
series just shown you. Hnter the item under one of the two heads, accord- 
ing to what you remember. 

(a) Brand. 
(b) Special feature (any feature of label you remember). 

2. Which of these peaches shown, have you heard of before? 

3. In the ease of arranging the cans, what was the basis of your judg- 
ment? 


Considering the fruit in the saucers, the arrangement accord- 
ing to position value* is as follows: 


Men Women Men and women 
Quality 1 3.26 2.60 2.93 
Quality 2 5.86 Dot 5.61 
Quality 3 yas 5.91 5.84 
Quality 4 6.26 7.04 6.65 
Quality 5 10.54 10.23 10.39 


The results show that there is a very marked difference in 
appearance between ‘the various qualities, and that the observers, 


* By position value is meant the average position given by the group 
of subjects. If the choice were arbitrary, each would have a value of six 
and one-half, but as there is of course a choice, the position held by any 
one label might range from one up to twelve. The average position of any 
label will be near one or near twelve only in case the subjects agree very 
closely with one another. 


64 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou.3 


unfamiliar as they were with the material, could not be deceived, 
which as we shall later see, was not the case with the labels. The 
position values show that there is a greater difference between 
qualities 1 and 2 and between 4 and 5 than between qualities 
2,3 and 4. There are no noticeable sex differences. 

The following table shows the arrangement of the cans when 
they were arranged according to their labels: 


Name of Men and Memory 
Quality brand Men Women Women Men and women 

1 Griffon 5.90 6.52 6.21 26.5% 
2 Del Monte 2.78 1.92 2.35 75.5% 
2 Acme 6.00 5.42 5.71 47.2% 
2 Oak 7.92 (hres) 7.85 51.5% 
3 Mission ~ 4.10 4.48 4.29 62.5% 
3 Gold Seal 4.88 4.56 4,72 31.2% 
3 Sweet Brier 6.44 7.10 6.77 40.5% 
+ Banquet 7.38 8.78 8.08 65.5% 
4 Swallow 7.84 8.38 8.11 47.0% 
+ Bouquet 8.32 8.58 8.45 33.0% 
5 Ideal 6.06 3.88 4.97 42.0% 
b Creole 10.32 10.66 10.49 65.7% 


The correlation of this arrangement (men and women com- 
bined), with the actual qualities is 0.48, showing that there is 
some relationship between the label and the contents; however, 
the subjects were far less correct in their judgment of the labels 
than in their judgment of the fruit itself. The analysis of this 
table shows that Del Monte comes first, probably because of its 
familiarity. The only important sex difference shows itself in 
the ease of Ideal, which is ranked second by the women and 
sixth by the men. The range of position value of the women is 
a little greater than that of the men, showing that the former 
are more alike or positive in their selection. On the whole men 
and women correlate so highly that the figures can be combined 
without detriment to the final results. 

The memory test was given to the observer after the com- 
pletion of the arrangements just referred to. The subjects were 
asked to enter what they remembered under two headings: (A) 
Name of brand—being explicit information; (B) Special feature 
remembered—being general information. If under either head- 


WNIV. GALIFR PUBL, (PSYCHOL, VOLS CRELEER ) Pe eae | 


: ears Bt Came saat 


PACKED SY 
fornia 


YELLOW CLING PEACHES | ==" YELLOW CLING PEACHES 


: CALIFORNIA FRUIT CANNERS 
a _ ASSOCIATION 
. "SAN FRANCISCO, 


‘YAulowcuNg PEACHES =" YELLOW CLING PEACHES 


HET CONTENTS 1 pounD 13 OUNCES 


- SWEET BRIER 


BRAND 


@l ifornia 
Fruit @nners 
Association. ~ 


CAUPORMIA 


OWCIING FACHES YELLOW CLING PEACHES 


NET WEIGHT | LB. 14 02, Lee tenee NET Sines ' ‘6. 14 02, 


Digitized by the !hternet Archive 
in 2022 with funding from 
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates 


httos://archive.org/details/analysisofoackagOOhell 


1919] Heller: Analysis of Package Labels 65 


ing the information was partly correct, only half credit was given. 
The data have been combined into a ae unit by taking the 


sum of the information, i.e., A + B +3 fui 5° and expressing it 


in per cent. 

The results show that the observer well remembers his first 
choice and also clearly remembers the very bad labels at the end 
of the list. 

In answer to the second question on the memory blank, 
‘““Which of these peaches shown have you heard of before?’’ 
Del Monte receives over 50 per cent more responses than all the 
others combined. 

In reply to the third question, ‘‘In the case of arranging the 
cans, what was the basis of your judgment?’’ a great many 
factors or incentives are named, many of which are too com- 
plicated for analysis in such a study as this, but the following 
factors were frequently noted. 

1. Familiarity 

2. Color scheme 

3. Simplicity 

4. Richness 

5. Appropriateness 


op) 


. Pleasingness. 
It appeared that if these factors could be eee controlled, 
different arrangements might result. 


PART II 


This part of the experiment deals with the arrangement of 
the labels used in Part I according to five explicit sets of direc- 
tions, each one containing one of the incentives, with the excep- 
tion of familiarity, referred to at the end of the last paragraph. 
Each set was arranged by thirty-seven women subjects, no one 
subject making more than one arrangement. Some of the sub- 
jects, however, had previously made the uncontrolled arrange- 
‘ment; these were warned that the directions differed from the 
first by calling for a definite arrangement. 


66 University of California Publications in Psychology (VoL. 3 


The five sets of directions were as follows: 


1 

Arrange the twelve cans of peaches from left to right beginning with 
your first choice on the left according to color scheme. 

Place the one with the most effective color scheme on the extreme left, 
then the next most effective, and so on down to the one with the least 
effective color scheme. ’ 

2 

Arrange the twelve cans of peaches from left to right beginning with 
your first choice on the left according to the simplicity of the label. 

Place the one with the most simple label on the extreme left, then the 
next most simple, and so on down to the least simple. 


3 
Arrange the twelve cans of peaches from left to right beginning with 
your first choice on the left according to the richness of the label. 
Place the richest on the extreme left, then the next most rich, and so 
on down to the least rich. 
4 
Arrange the twelve cans of peaches from left to right beginning with 
your first choice on the left according to the appropriateness of the label. 
Place the one with the most appropriate label on the extreme left, then 
the next most appropriate, and so on down to the least appropriate. 
5 
Arrange the twelve cans of peaches from left to right beginning with 
your first choice on the left according to the pleasingness of the label as a 
whole, including design or picture, typographical arrangement and balance. 
Place the most pleasing one on the extreme left, then the next most 
pleasing, and so on down to the least pleasing. 


The position value for the different arrangements under the 
various captions is as follows: 


Tacentolled ‘ ieee : rete 

judgment Color Richness ness Simplicity ateness 
Del Monte 2.35 3.32 3.91 ac. 3.27 4.51 
Mission 4.29 5.43 4.54 3.81 6.00 5.40 
Gold Seal 4.72 5.81 3.97 5.13 6.30 5.05 
Ideal 4.97 5.45 5.12 4.86 1.48° 5.32 
Acme 5.71 5.02 6.06 5.75 2.35 6.00 
Griiious) 7 6.21 7.70 4.87 6.64 6.37 6.86 
Sweet Brier 6.77 5.79 6.93 6.08 7.10 6.27 
Oak 7.65 6.94 7.09 5.43 6.37 T.L0 
Banquet 8.08 8.64 8.60 10.43 ni be Ws §.46 
Swallow 8.11 6.81 8.18 6.21 10.27 TOU 
Bouquet 8.45 8.02 8.21 8.62 9.30 7.13 


Creole 10.49 9.02 10.30 11.32 Vota 9.60 


UNL CALIRE PUBL? PSYOROL  VOE. 3 PEL Cera) PAE 


NET WEIGHT 1LB8.140Z. 


‘YELLOW CLING PEACHES 


CALIFORNIA i 
FRUIT CANNERS ASSOCIATION 


SAN FRANCISCO. CALIFORN 
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ESN, CALIFOR 


YELLOW CLING PEACHES 


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Column 1 is the wncontrolled arrangement. Comparing this 
with the controlled arrangements, the following differences in 
rank are noted (a plus (+) indicating an increase in rank, 1.e., 
higher position value; minus (—) indicating a decrease in rank, 
1.e., a lower position value) : 


Pleas- Appropri- 
Color Richness ingness Simplicity ateness 
Del Monte 0 0 0 —2 0 
Mission —l —l 0 —2 —2 
Gold Seal —3 +1 —] —2 +1 
Ideal 0 —l +1 +3 +1 
Aeme +3 —1] —1 +3 0 
Griffon —3 +2 —4t —l —2 
Sweet Brier +2 0 0 —l +1 
Oak 0 0 +3 +1 —1 
Banquet —2 —2 —2 —3 +2 
Swallow +3 +1 +2 —1l 0 
Bouquet +1 +1 +2 +1 0 
Creole 0 0 0 +3 0 


The following table shows which set of directions brought out 
the clearest contrast between the labels: 


Highest average Lowest average 
position given position given 


to any label to any label Range 
Uncontrolled 2.385 10.49 8.14 
Color 3.32 9.02 5.70 
Richness B01 10.30 6.79 
Pleasingness 3.67 11.32 7.66 
Simplicity 1.48 137 9.89 
Appropriatness 4.51 9.60 5.09 


The position value for the cans arranged according to sim- 
plicity ranges from 1.48 to 11.37, showing how closely the 
subjects agree in their choice. This arrangement was more 
mechanical than the others. It was possible to eliminate the other 
factors and consider the single factor, which seemed to be impos- 
sible with the arrangements according to the other incentives. 
It is of interest to note in this arrangement that Ideal and Acme 
rise in rank, and Del Monte, which is first in all other arrange- 
ments, drops to third place, but still has a higher position than 
it holds in any of the other controlled arrangements. Creole at 


68 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou 3 


ninth place holds a much lower position value than it holds in 
any of the other arrangements at twelfth place. This is the only 
arrangement in which Del Monte is not first and Creole is not last. 

Appropriateness is the least mechanical as well as the least 
intelligible, in consequence of which the subjects were unable to 
agree and the range of position value is very small—from 4.51 
for the best to 9.60 for the worst. 

Color scheme, which the subjects considered to mean an 
arrangement on an aesthetic basis, has also a comparatively small 
range of position value, showing nothing more than an arrange- 
ment according to color harmony instead of according to strik- 
ingness as was expected. 

It is of interest to note that Acme and Swallow in this arrange- 
ment rise in position value, while Griffon and Gold Seal fall, 
which is probably due to a sex difference and might not be the 
same were the arrangements made by a group of men. 

Richness caused the subjects a great deal of difficulty. It is 
ambiguous and could not be isolated from the other factors. 

Pleasingness seems to have meant nothing more to the ob- 
servers than a pleasing color combination and the arrangement is 
very similar to the one under color. 

As the following table shows, there is a high correlation be- 
tween the arrangements according to separate factors, and the 
uncontrolled judgment. 


CORRELATIONS 

Pleasing- Sim- Appropri- Uncon- 

Color Richness ness plicity ateness trolled 
Colores; 20 Ai ae a el eee 0.75 0.86 0.79 0.77 0.82 
Richness ORD sin eee 0.75 0.73 0.84 0.94 
Pleasingness 0.86 OAs Santini Nise 0.76 0.80 0.85 
Simplicity 1, 10.79 0.73 OF7-G pulse oe 0.73 0.80 
Appropriateness 0.79 0.84 0.80 UY Sal ive etre 0.94 
Uncontrolled 0.83 0.95 0.85 0.80 ODL’ igeeee 


The correlations are all very high, especially between the 
various controlled arrangements and the wncontrolled arrange- 
ment; the two lowest correlations are between simplicity and 


UNIV, CALIF. 


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SAN FRANCISCO 
CALIFORNIA 


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1919] Heller: Analysis of Package Labels 69 


richness, and simplicity and appropriateness, in each case 0.73. 
The two highest correlations are between wncontrolled judgment 
and richness, and between uncontrolled judgment and appro- 
priateness. In the former it is 0.95 and in the latter 0.94, both 
figures showing nearly perfect correlation. Probably the factor 
of previous familiarity is responsible for some part of this 
correlation. 

These high correlations indicate that the wncontrolled judg- 
ments are not affected by one factor more than another, and that 
it is difficult to isolate any one factor with the possible exception 
of a purely mechanical element like simplicity. 

The final arrangements would suggest that either these incen- 
tives are not wholly exhaustive of uncontrolled judgment or that 
perhaps uncontrolled judgment rests upon only a single incentive. 


PART ITI—DIVISION A 


In this part of the problem, price was made the principal 
factor. The original retail prices for the various qualities were 
as follows: 

Quality 1 25 cents per can 
Quality 2 20 cents per can 
Quality 3 15 cents per can 
Quality 4 123cents per can 
Quality 5 10 cents per can 


In order to simplify the problem, only four brands were con- 
sidered. Del Monte was eliminated on account of its familiarity ; 
Mission was chosen as it came next to Del Monte; Acme and 
Ideal because they ranked about middle in the previous experi- 
ment; and Creole on account of its appearing always at the end 
of the list. 

The observer was given to understand that he had an imagi- 
nary $1.20 to spend in purchasing one of the four brands of 
canned peaches shown him. Each brand, in turn, was assigned a 
value of one of the four prices (30 cents, 20 cents, 15 cents or 10 


70 University of California Publications in Psychology |Vou. 3 


cents) while the other three were given the other prices. The 
prices changed from brand to brand, so that all of the twenty-four 
possible combinations were presented to the subjects an equal 
number of times. No observer, however, had more than one 
arrangement. 

The directions given to the subjects read as follows: 


In this experiment please try to imagine yourself in the circumstances 
described below. 

You have $1.20 in your possession with which to purchase canned 
peaches to be served at your table to a group of friends for dessert. 

Assume that all of this $1.20 has to be spent in the purchase of one 
of the brands shown. Which would you choose? 


The results for one hundred and forty-four cases, about 
equally divided between men and women, were as follows: 


80 cents 20cents 15 cents 10cents Total 


Ideal valk 20 6 1 48 
Acme 21 aby 4 3 48 
Mission 14 cy, 4 he rot 
Creole 4 8 1 is 
Total 60 62 18 4 144 


It is of interest to note that Mission, which appeared in the 
former experiment to be a superior brand, comes after Ideal and 
Acme in this arrangement. Creole as in the other arrangements, 
is last. There appears to be more demand for this poor brand at 
thirty and twenty cents than at lower figures, showing that rais- 
ing the price tends to increase the demand for a very poor brand 
as well as for other brands. From the above figures it would 
appear that twenty cents is the correct amount to charge college 
students, as more of them will buy at this figure than at any 
other. In monetary return, thirty cents seems to be preferable ; 
there are not quite so many actual sales, but the total returns 
are greater, which is of course most important for the storekeeper. 


4. 
1919] Heller: Analysis of Package Labels 71 


PART IJTI—DIVISION B 


Further consideration of the price factor suggested that price, 
popularity, and demand are intimately related. 

The Del Monte brand was chosen for this part of the experi- 
ment because it was the most popular, and the Griffon because it 
was the most expensive. 

Four different prices were assigned alternately to Del Monte. 
It was first shown to thirty-six subjects from Division A, bearing 
the price of 20 cents, to the next thirty-six subjects marked at 
30 cents, to the next group marked at 40 cents, and to the last 
group marked at 60 cents. In all cases it was shown along with 
Gold Seal and Bouquet, which were assigned prices of 10 cents 
and 15 cents, the prices being alternated on these two so that all 
posible combinations were obtained. Griffon was later shown 
under the same conditions as Del Monte, to the same groups of 
subjects. 

The subjects were given the same set of written directions as 
for Division A. | 

The following table shows the distribution of choice: 


Gold Seal Gold Seal Bouquet Bouquet 
15 cents 10cents 15 cents 10 cents 


Del Monte 20 cents 31 2 a 3 
| Griffon 20 cents 25 5 ns 6 
f Del Monte 30 cents 31 i. 3 UP 
Griffon 30 cents 36 4 2 4. 
( Del Monte 40 cents aoe 5 1 5 
l Griffon 40 cents All 5 5 5 
Del Monte 60 cents 16 9 2 9 
| Griffon 60 cents 11 10 6 9 


This table shows that Del Monte, which is really inferior to 
Griffon, is chosen at a higher price on account of familiarity. 
There appears to be an increase in demand for the less popular 
brands as their price is increased. This is illustrated by the fact 
that the demand for Griffon is increased nearly 50 per cent 


— 3 0112 072341321 


72 Umversity of Califorma Publications in Psyu..cwyiy ts © 


when sold at 30 cents instead of 20 cents. Bouquet does not 
ereate a single demand at 10 cents, but is Just as popular, at 15 
eents, as Gold Seal, although the latter has some demand at 
10 cents. 


SUMMARY 


1. The best labels are actually used by the canners for superior 
qualities of goods, but there is no exact relation between the 
quality of the goods and the label. 

2. All factors are so closely related that it is impossible to 
separate them. In making such an arrangement the exact word- 
ing of the directions is immaterial, since the arrangement under 
the directions intended to control the judgment is practically the 
same as the uncontrolled arrangement. 

3. Other conditions being equal, more subjects, in 1916-1917, 
will pay 20 cents than 30 cents, 15 cents or 10 cents. All brands 
sell better at 20 cents or 30 cents than at 10 cents or 15 cents. 
Some brands have a larger sale at the higher prices than others; 
others can scarcely be disposed of at any price. The familiar 
brand has more sales at higher prices than an unknown brand 
that is in fact a superior quality. As price is increased until it 
becomes exorbitant, the number of sales does not decrease in 
proportion, so that returns to a dealer at higher prices are greater 
than at a moderate price. 


TePP ele eC E Se & 


